Author Archives: Shervan K Shahhian, LIBERTY PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, The Most Comprehensive Online Library Regarding Mental Health, Psychology and Parapsychology in the World.

A good understanding Applied behavior analysis:

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is a scientific approach to understanding and changing human behavior. It is rooted in the principles of behaviorism and relies on objective observation and analysis of behavior in order to develop effective interventions. ABA is widely used in various fields, including psychology, education, and therapy, to help individuals learn new skills, reduce problem behaviors, and improve their overall quality of life.

Key Concepts of Applied Behavior Analysis:

Behavior: ABA focuses on observable and measurable behavior. It examines what people do or say, rather than speculating about internal thoughts or emotions.

Antecedents: Antecedents refer to events or stimuli that occur before a behavior. ABA identifies antecedents to determine their influence on behavior. For example, a child may throw a tantrum when asked to do homework (antecedent) to avoid the task (behavior).

Behavior: Behavior refers to an individual’s observable actions, including what they say and do. ABA precisely defines behaviors to allow for objective measurement and analysis.

Consequences: Consequences are the events or stimuli that follow a behavior. ABA recognizes that consequences can influence the likelihood of a behavior occurring again in the future. Positive consequences (reinforcement) increase the probability of behavior, while negative consequences (punishment) decrease it.

Reinforcement: Reinforcement is a fundamental principle of ABA. Positive reinforcement involves providing rewards or preferred stimuli to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring again. For example, praising a child for completing their homework may increase the chances of them doing it again in the future.

Punishment: Punishment refers to the application of negative consequences to reduce the occurrence of a behavior. ABA emphasizes the use of positive reinforcement strategies instead of punishment whenever possible.

Functional Analysis: ABA utilizes functional analysis to identify the underlying reasons or functions of a behavior. By understanding the purpose a behavior serves, interventions can be designed to address the individual’s specific needs.

Applications of ABA:

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): ABA is widely used for individuals with ASD to teach new skills, such as communication and social interaction, and reduce challenging behaviors.

Education: ABA techniques are employed in schools to improve academic performance, address behavioral issues, and enhance classroom management.

Parenting: ABA principles can be applied in parenting strategies to encourage positive behaviors and discourage problem behaviors.

Organizational Behavior Management: ABA is utilized in the workplace to improve employee performance, increase productivity, and enhance job satisfaction.

Mental Health: ABA interventions can be adapted for individuals with various mental health conditions, including anxiety disorders, ADHD, and substance abuse.

Overall, ABA is a systematic and evidence-based approach that focuses on understanding the relationship between behavior and its environmental influences. By applying the principles of ABA, behavior analysts strive to promote positive behavior change and improve the lives of individuals across different settings and populations.

Shervan K Shahhian

A detailed understanding of Anomalistic psychology:

Anomalistic psychology is a subfield of psychology that focuses on the study of extraordinary phenomena and experiences, including paranormal beliefs, psychic abilities, and supernatural experiences. It aims to provide scientific explanations for these phenomena by applying principles and theories of psychology. Here is a detailed understanding of anomalous psychology:

Definition and Scope: Anomalistic psychology seeks to explore and understand phenomena that are considered abnormal, unusual, or beyond the boundaries of conventional scientific understanding. It investigates various topics such as paranormal beliefs, extrasensory perception (ESP), psychokinesis (PK), near-death experiences, out-of-body experiences, hauntings, and other related phenomena.

Scientific Approach: Anomalistic psychology takes a scientific and skeptical approach to the study of paranormal phenomena. It emphasizes critical thinking, empirical evidence, and logical reasoning to examine extraordinary claims. It aims to provide naturalistic explanations for these phenomena rather than resorting to supernatural or paranormal explanations.

Explanatory Models: Anomalistic psychology proposes several psychological models to explain anomalous experiences. Some of the prominent models include:

a. Cognitive Perspective: This perspective focuses on how cognitive processes, such as perception, memory, attention, and reasoning, contribute to the formation and interpretation of paranormal beliefs and experiences. It suggests that cognitive biases, illusions, and errors in information processing can lead individuals to perceive or interpret events as paranormal.

b. Psychodynamic Perspective: This perspective draws on Freudian concepts and suggests that paranormal experiences may be symbolic representations of unresolved conflicts, repressed desires, or unconscious psychological processes. It examines how unconscious motivations and conflicts influence the adoption of paranormal beliefs.

c. Social and Cultural Influences: This perspective emphasizes the role of social and cultural factors in shaping paranormal beliefs and experiences. It examines how socialization, group dynamics, media, and cultural beliefs contribute to the acceptance or rejection of paranormal phenomena.

Experimental Research: Anomalistic psychology employs experimental methods to investigate paranormal claims and experiences. Researchers design controlled laboratory experiments to test psychic abilities, investigate claims of telepathy or precognition, and examine the factors that influence paranormal beliefs. These experiments often involve tasks such as card guessing, remote viewing, or telepathy tests.

Debunking and Skepticism: Anomalistic psychology also includes a critical examination of paranormal claims and a debunking approach. Researchers aim to expose fraud, deception, and logical fallacies behind some paranormal phenomena. They use scientific methods and investigative techniques to debunk pseudoscientific claims and promote rational thinking.

Contributions and Criticisms: Anomalistic psychology has made significant contributions to understanding human belief systems, cognitive processes, and the social dynamics surrounding paranormal experiences. However, it has faced criticism from believers in the paranormal who argue that it overlooks genuine paranormal phenomena and dismisses subjective experiences.

In summary, anomalous psychology explores extraordinary phenomena from a scientific standpoint. It seeks to explain paranormal beliefs and experiences through cognitive, psychodynamic, and social perspectives. By employing rigorous research methods and critical thinking, it aims to demystify paranormal claims and provide naturalistic explanations for these phenomena.

Shervan K Shahhian

A very good understanding of the psychology of intimacy:

Certainly! Intimacy is a complex and multifaceted aspect of human relationships that involves emotional, physical, and psychological closeness between individuals. It plays a crucial role in building and maintaining healthy and fulfilling connections with others. Here are some key points to consider when discussing the psychology of intimacy:

Emotional Connection: Intimacy is deeply rooted in emotional bonding. It involves the ability to share and understand each other’s feelings, thoughts, and experiences. Emotional intimacy requires trust, vulnerability, and empathy.

Trust and Security: Trust is the foundation of intimacy. It involves having confidence in one another’s reliability, honesty, and intentions. Feeling secure in a relationship allows individuals to be open and authentic, fostering deeper connections.

Communication: Effective communication is vital for developing intimacy. It involves active listening, expressing oneself honestly and respectfully, and being receptive to the needs and desires of one’s partner. Open and transparent communication builds trust and understanding.

Mutual Support: Intimate relationships thrive on mutual support and encouragement. Being there for each other in times of need, offering emotional and practical support, and celebrating each other’s successes fosters a sense of closeness and intimacy.

Physical Intimacy: Physical touch, such as hugging, holding hands, and sexual intimacy, plays an essential role in many intimate relationships. Physical closeness can deepen emotional bonds and contribute to a sense of security and connection.

Boundaries: Establishing and respecting boundaries is crucial for maintaining healthy intimacy. Each individual should feel comfortable expressing their needs, desires, and limits, while also respecting their partner’s boundaries.

Emotional Availability: Being emotionally available means being present and responsive to one’s partner’s emotional needs. It involves being attuned to their feelings, offering support, and demonstrating empathy. Emotional availability strengthens the emotional connection.

Self-Awareness: Understanding oneself and one’s own needs is fundamental to building intimacy. Self-awareness allows individuals to communicate effectively, express their desires, and establish healthy boundaries.

Continual Growth: Intimate relationships require ongoing effort and growth. This involves exploring and understanding each other’s evolving needs, maintaining open communication, and adapting to changes over time.

Conflict Resolution: Addressing conflicts in a constructive and respectful manner is essential for maintaining intimacy. Finding mutually satisfactory solutions, active listening, and compromise contribute to a stronger emotional bond.

It’s important to note that the psychology of intimacy can vary among individuals and relationships. Factors such as cultural background, personal experiences, and individual differences can influence how people perceive and experience intimacy.

Shervan K Shahhian

The study of Psychophysics:

Psychophysics is a branch of psychology that deals with the quantitative relationship between physical stimuli and the corresponding psychological or sensory experiences they evoke. It focuses on understanding the relationship between the physical properties of a stimulus and the psychological response it generates.

The field of psychophysics aims to measure and quantify subjective experiences such as perception, sensation, and cognition in response to various external stimuli. It seeks to establish mathematical and statistical relationships between physical stimuli and the perceptual or cognitive processes they elicit.

The founder of psychophysics is generally considered to be the German scientist Gustav Fechner, who developed the concept of the “just noticeable difference” (JND). Fechner’s work laid the foundation for the field by establishing methods to measure and quantify the relationship between physical stimuli and the corresponding psychological experience.

Psychophysical experiments often involve presenting participants with controlled stimuli, such as sounds, lights, or images, and then measuring their perceptual responses using various techniques. These techniques may include methods like threshold detection, scaling, matching, or discrimination tasks. Researchers then analyze the data collected from these experiments to determine the relationship between physical stimuli and subjective experiences.

Psychophysics has applications in various fields, including vision science, auditory perception, haptics (the study of touch), and cognitive psychology. It has been instrumental in understanding the limits and capabilities of human perception, as well as in developing models and theories of perception and cognition.

Overall, psychophysics plays a crucial role in bridging the gap between the physical world and our subjective experiences, providing insights into how we perceive and make sense of the world around us.

Shervan K Shahhian

Understanding the meaning of Neurotransmitters:

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that play a crucial role in transmitting signals across the nervous system. They are produced by neurons, which are specialized cells in the brain and other parts of the nervous system. When a neuron is activated, it releases neurotransmitters into the synapse, the small gap between the sending neuron (presynaptic neuron) and the receiving neuron (postsynaptic neuron).

Neurotransmitters bind to specific receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, initiating a series of biochemical events that either excite or inhibit the activity of the receiving neuron. This process is essential for the communication between neurons and for the functioning of the nervous system as a whole.

Neurotransmitters are involved in various physiological processes, including controlling mood, emotions, cognition, behavior, and bodily functions. They help regulate functions such as motor control, learning and memory, sleep, appetite, pain sensation, and hormonal regulation. They are also involved in the reward system, which plays a role in motivation and addiction.

There are several types of neurotransmitters, each with its own specific functions and effects on the brain and body. Some examples of well-known neurotransmitters include:

1. Serotonin: Regulates mood, appetite, sleep, and sexual function.
2. Dopamine: Involved in motivation, reward, movement, and pleasure.
3. Acetylcholine: Plays a role in learning, memory, muscle movement, and attention.
4. GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid): Inhibits neuronal activity, helping to reduce anxiety and promote relaxation.
5. Glutamate: Excites neuronal activity and is involved in learning, memory, and synaptic plasticity.

Imbalances or dysfunctions in neurotransmitter systems can contribute to various neurological and psychiatric disorders, such as depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, Parkinson’s disease, and Alzheimer’s disease. Medications and therapies targeting neurotransmitter systems are often used to restore balance and alleviate symptoms in these conditions.

Shervan K Shahhian

What are Psychopharmacological substances:

Psychopharmacological substances, also known as psychoactive drugs or psychotropic substances, are chemicals that affect the brain and alter an individual’s perception, mood, cognition, behavior, or consciousness. These substances can be naturally occurring or synthetic and can be categorized into different classes based on their primary effects.

Here are some common classes of psychopharmacological substances:

1. Stimulants: These substances increase alertness, attention, and energy levels. Examples include amphetamines (e.g., Adderall), cocaine, and caffeine.
2. Depressants: Depressants have a calming and sedating effect on the central nervous system, often inducing relaxation or sleepiness. Alcohol, benzodiazepines (e.g., Xanax, Valium), and barbiturates fall into this category.
3. Hallucinogens: Hallucinogens alter perception, cognition, and sensory experiences. They can produce hallucinations, profound changes in thought patterns, and a distorted sense of time and reality. Examples include LSD (acid), psilocybin mushrooms, and MDMA (ecstasy).
4. Opioids: Opioids are primarily used for pain relief and have a sedating effect. They can also induce feelings of euphoria. Drugs in this class include heroin, morphine, and prescription opioids like oxycodone and hydrocodone.
5. Antipsychotics: These medications are primarily used to treat psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. They work by modulating neurotransmitter activity in the brain and reducing symptoms of psychosis. Examples include medications like haloperidol and risperidone.
6. Antidepressants: Antidepressants are prescribed to alleviate symptoms of depression and other mood disorders. They regulate the levels of neurotransmitters in the brain, such as serotonin and norepinephrine. Common examples include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) like fluoxetine (Prozac) and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) like venlafaxine (Effexor).
7. Anxiolytics: Anxiolytics, also known as anti-anxiety medications, are prescribed to reduce anxiety and promote relaxation. Benzodiazepines (e.g., Xanax, Valium) and certain antidepressants (e.g., certain SSRIs) can have anxiolytic effects.

It’s important to note that the use of psychopharmacological substances should always be approached with caution and under the guidance of a healthcare professional. Misuse or excessive use of these substances can lead to various health risks and potential addiction.

Shervan K Shahhian

What does Psychopathology really mean:

Psychopathology refers to the scientific study of mental disorders, their nature, causes, development, and treatment. It is a field within psychology and psychiatry that aims to understand and describe abnormal thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that are indicative of psychological disorders.

Psychopathology involves the examination of various factors that contribute to the development and maintenance of mental disorders, including biological, psychological, and social factors. Researchers and clinicians in this field study the symptoms, etiology (causes), classification, and treatment of mental disorders, with the ultimate goal of improving diagnosis, understanding, and intervention.

Psychopathology encompasses a wide range of conditions, such as anxiety disorders, mood disorders (e.g., depression and bipolar disorder), personality disorders, schizophrenia, substance use disorders, eating disorders, and many others. By investigating the underlying mechanisms of these disorders, psychopathologists strive to develop effective treatments and interventions to alleviate psychological distress and promote mental well-being.

It’s important to note that psychopathology does not involve simply labeling individuals as “psychopaths” or “pathological.” Instead, it focuses on understanding the complex nature of mental disorders, their impact on individuals’ lives, and the best ways to help those who are affected.

Shervan K Shahhian

A summary of and a guide to the human self:

Summary of the Human Self: The human self refers to the complex and multi-faceted nature of individual human identity, encompassing thoughts, emotions, experiences, beliefs, values, and the continuous process of self-awareness. It involves an individual’s perception of their own existence, consciousness, and unique attributes that distinguish them from others. The human self is shaped by both innate factors (such as genetics and biology) and external influences (such as culture, society, and personal experiences).

Guide to Understanding the Human Self:

1. Self-Awareness: Begin by developing self-awareness, which involves recognizing and understanding your own thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. Pay attention to your inner dialogue, reactions, and patterns of behavior. Reflecting on your actions and motivations can help you gain insights into your true self.
2. Explore Personal Values and Beliefs: Identify your core values and beliefs. These are the principles and convictions that guide your actions and decisions. Reflect on what is important to you, what you stand for, and what gives your life meaning and purpose.
3. Embrace Individuality: Recognize and appreciate your uniqueness. Understand that each person has a distinct set of strengths, weaknesses, talents, and perspectives. Embrace your individuality and appreciate the diversity that exists among people.
4. Self-Reflection: Regularly engage in self-reflection to gain a deeper understanding of yourself. Set aside time for introspection, journaling, or meditation. Ask yourself meaningful questions about your desires, aspirations, fears, and motivations. This practice can lead to personal growth and self-discovery.
5. Identify Personal Goals: Set meaningful and realistic goals that align with your values and aspirations. Having clear goals provides a sense of direction and purpose, allowing you to focus your efforts and energy on what matters most to you.
6. Nurture Relationships: Recognize the impact of relationships on your self-identity. Surround yourself with positive and supportive individuals who accept and value you for who you are. Cultivate healthy relationships that encourage personal growth and provide opportunities for meaningful connections.
7. Embrace Life-Long Learning: Understand that the self is not fixed, but rather evolves and grows over time. Embrace a mindset of continuous learning and personal development. Seek new experiences, acquire knowledge, and challenge yourself to expand your horizons.
8. Practice Self-Care: Prioritize self-care to maintain your physical, emotional, and mental well-being. Take care of your physical health through regular exercise, proper nutrition, and sufficient rest. Pay attention to your emotional needs and engage in activities that bring you joy, relaxation, and fulfillment.
9. Accept Imperfections: Recognize that nobody is perfect, including yourself. Embrace your flaws and learn from your mistakes. Treat setbacks as opportunities for growth and development. Practice self-compassion and be kind to yourself during challenging times.
10. Live Authentically: Be true to yourself and live in alignment with your values, beliefs, and passions. Avoid comparing yourself to others or seeking validation from external sources. Embrace your authenticity and let it guide your choices and actions.

Remember, understanding the human self is an ongoing journey, and it may evolve and change as you grow and experience new things. Embrace the process and be open to self-discovery along the way.

Shervan K Shahhian

Understanding the Psychology of self:

Understanding the psychology of the self is a complex and multifaceted topic that has been studied by psychologists and philosophers for centuries. The concept of self refers to an individual’s sense of personal identity and awareness of their own existence as separate from others. It encompasses various aspects, including self-perception, self-esteem, self-concept, and self-awareness.

Here are some key points to consider when exploring the psychology of self:

1. Self-perception: This refers to how individuals perceive and interpret themselves. It involves beliefs, attitudes, and ideas about one’s own characteristics, abilities, and values.
2. Self-esteem: Self-esteem refers to an individual’s overall evaluation and subjective feelings of self-worth. It can influence a person’s confidence, resilience, and ability to cope with challenges.
3. Self-concept: Self-concept is the collection of beliefs, thoughts, and ideas an individual holds about themselves. It includes aspects such as personality traits, roles, social identities, and relationships. Self-concept can be influenced by social interactions, cultural factors, and personal experiences.
4. Self-awareness: Self-awareness is the ability to recognize and understand one’s thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. It involves introspection and the capacity to observe oneself from an objective perspective. Self-awareness plays a crucial role in personal growth and development.
5. Self-regulation: Self-regulation refers to the ability to control and manage one’s thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. It involves setting goals, making decisions, and exerting self-control. Self-regulation is vital for achieving long-term goals, resisting temptation, and adapting to different situations.
6. Social influences: The development of the self is strongly influenced by social factors, such as family, peers, culture, and society. Interactions with others shape our self-perception, self-esteem, and identity. Social comparison and feedback from others also play a role in shaping how we see ourselves.
7. Developmental aspects: The understanding of self evolves over the course of an individual’s life. The concept of self undergoes significant changes from infancy to adulthood, influenced by cognitive, emotional, and social development. Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development provides insights into the stages of identity formation and the challenges individuals face at different life stages.

It’s important to note that the psychology of self is a dynamic field of study, and there are various theories and perspectives on this topic. Researchers continue to explore and deepen our understanding of how the self is formed, maintained, and influenced by internal and external factors.

Shervan K Shahhian

The less known field of Psychology of science:

The psychology of science is an interdisciplinary field that focuses on understanding the cognitive, social, and emotional processes involved in scientific thinking, discovery, and communication. While the field itself may not be widely known to the general public, it is recognized and studied within the scientific community. Here are some aspects of the psychology of science that may be considered less known or less familiar to the broader audience:

Belief perseverance: This refers to the tendency of individuals to maintain their beliefs even in the face of contradictory evidence. In the context of science, scientists may hold onto their theories or hypotheses despite evidence that challenges them. This phenomenon highlights the role of cognitive biases in scientific reasoning.

Confirmation bias: This is the tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms preexisting beliefs or hypotheses. Scientists, like anyone else, can be influenced by confirmation bias, which can potentially impact the objectivity of their research and the interpretation of their findings.

Replication crisis: In recent years, there has been growing concern about the reproducibility of scientific findings across various disciplines. The psychology of science examines the underlying factors contributing to this replication crisis, including publication bias, p-hacking, and questionable research practices. It also investigates the impact of these issues on scientific progress and the credibility of research.

Social influences on scientific behavior: Scientists are not immune to social influences and norms. The psychology of science explores how factors such as competition, collaboration, peer pressure, and institutional pressures can shape scientific behavior, decision-making, and the dissemination of scientific knowledge.

Motivations and incentives in science: Understanding the motivations that drive scientists and the incentives they face is another area of study within the psychology of science. It investigates how factors such as career advancement, funding availability, and recognition can influence scientific practices, scientific misconduct, and the overall progress of scientific knowledge.

Science communication and public perception: The psychology of science also encompasses the study of how scientific information is communicated to the public and how it is received and interpreted. It explores the factors that influence public perception of scientific findings, including cognitive biases, media representation, and personal beliefs.

These are just a few examples of the less known aspects within the field of psychology of science. The discipline continues to evolve as researchers uncover new insights into the complex interplay between psychology and the practice of science.

Shervan K Shahhian