Author Archives: Shervan K Shahhian, LIBERTY PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, The Most Comprehensive Online Library Regarding Mental Health, Psychology and Parapsychology in the World.

Doctored Degree in Clinical Psychology (PSYD) (ABD) All But Dissertation, a Masters (M.A.) in Clinical Psychology, a Bachelor's Degree (B.A.) in Psychology, a Associate Degree (AA) in Liberal Arts with an emphases in Psychology, Certification in Anger Management, Certification in MRT-Moral Reconation Therapy®, Certification in Clinical Hypnotherapy, and Certification in Advanced Hypnotherapy.

Client Center Therapy:

History:

Dr. Carl Rogers is known as one of thee greatest psychologist of the 20th century. Dr. Carl Rogers was a humanist thinker and believed that people are generally good.

Dr. Rogers also said that people are fundamentally good, or a need to fulfill their human potential and become the best that they can be.

Dr. Rogers called his technique non-directive therapy at the beginning. His aim was to be as non-directive as possible, he saw that psycho-therapists guide their clients even in some way. He also saw that clients mostly look to their therapists for some type of advice or direction.

What is Client-Centered Therapy:

Finally, the Dr. Rogers technique came to be known as Rogerian, client-centered therapy or person-centered therapy.

Dr. Rogers used the term client rather than patient. He thought that the term patient implied that the person is sick and seeking a cure from a therapist.

Dr. Rogers used the term client instead of patient, he emphasized the importance of the person in seeking help, controlling their future, and overcoming their problems. This self-direction is a important part in client-centered therapy.

Like psychoanalyst Dr. Freud , Dr. Rogers thought that the therapeutic interaction could find insights and lasting changes in clients. While Dr. Freud focused on giving interpretations of what he thought were the unconscious problems that led to a patients troubles, Dr. Rogers believed that the therapist should stay non-directive.

This is to say, the psycho-therapist should not direct the client, should not give judgments on the client’s feelings, and should not give suggestions or alternatives. Instead, the client should play an equal part in the therapeutic sessions.

How Does Client-Centered Therapy Works:

Psychology professionals who utilize this technique strive to create a therapeutic environment that is relaxing, empathic, and non-judgmental. 2 of these key elements of client-centered therapy are:

It’s non-directive. Therapists let clients lead the talk and do not try to direct the client in a certain direction.
It emphasizes unconditional positive regard. Therapists is completely accepting and supportive of their clients without judgment.

Three Key Qualities of Client-Centered Therapists:

What Is Genuineness?

The therapist needs to speak of his or her feelings honestly. By showing this behavior, the therapist can help show the client and to also help the client develop this important skill.

What Is Unconditional Positive Regard?

The therapist must understand the client for who they really are and show support and care for them no matter what the client is experiencing in their life. Dr. Rogers believed that humans often develop issues because they are used to only getting conditional help; being accepted only if the person conforms to certain expectations.

By creating an environment of unconditional positive regard, the client is able to speak his or her true feelings without fear of being turned down.

Dr. Rogers also explained: “Unconditional positive regard means that when the therapist is experiencing a positive, acceptant attitude toward whatever the client is at that moment, therapeutic movement or change is more likely. It involves the therapist’s willingness for the client to be whatever feeling is going on at that moment – confusion, resentment, fear, anger, courage, love, or pride…The therapist prizes the client in a total rather than a conditional way.”

What Is Empathetic Understanding?

The therapist needs to be reflective, meaning: acting as a mirror of the client’s thought and feelings. The goal of this technique is to allow the client to gain an open understanding of their own inner feelings, emotions and perceptions.

By showing these 3 characteristics, therapists can assist clients grow psychologically, become self-aware, and change his or her behavior by self-direction. In this type of therapeutic relationship, a client feels safe and free from judgment. Dr. Rogers believed that this type of environment allows clients to make a healthier view of the world and a less cloudy view of one self.

What Is Self-Concept:

Self-concept also an important part in person-centered therapy.

Dr. Rogers believed that self-concept as an organized set of beliefs and ideas about the self. The self-concept play an important role in determining not only how people see themselves, but also how they view and interact with the world around them.

Sometimes self-concept lines up well with reality, which Rogers referred to as congruence. In other cases, self-perceptions are sometimes unrealistic or not in tune with what exists in the real world. Rogers believed that all people distort reality to some degree, but when self-concept is in conflict with reality, incongruence can result.

For example, a young boy might perceive himself as a strong athlete, despite the fact that his actual performance on the field reveals that he is not particularly skilled and could use extra practice.

Through the process of person-centered therapy, Rogers believed that people could learn to adjust their self-concept in order to achieve congruence and a more realistic view of themselves and the world. For example, imagine a young woman who views herself as uninteresting and a poor conversationalist despite the fact that other people find her fascinating and quite engaging.

Because her self-perceptions are not congruent with reality, she may experience poor self-esteem as a result. The client-centered approach focuses on providing unconditional positive regard, empathy, and genuine support in order to help the client reach a more congruent view of herself

Role in Today’s Culture:

Actor Bob Newhart portrayed a therapist who utilized client-centered therapy on “The Bob Newhart Show” which aired from 1972 to 1978.

How Effective Is Client-Centered Therapy?

Several large-scale studies have shown that the three qualities that Rogers emphasized, genuineness, unconditional positive regard, and empathetic understanding, are all beneficial. However, some studies have suggested that these factors alone are not necessarily enough to promote lasting change in clients.⁴

One evaluation that looked at the effectiveness of person-centered therapy suggested that this approach was effective for individuals experiencing common mental health problems such as depression and anxiety, and may even be helpful to those experiencing more moderate to severe symptoms.

Shervan K Shahhian

Psychotherapy, a great explanation:

An overview
Psychotherapy is a non-specific term for treating mental health issues by seeing a psychotherapist, psychiatrist, psychologist or other mental health professionals.

During psychotherapy sessions, one can learn about their condition and moods, issues, feelings, thoughts and behaviors. Psychotherapy can help a person to learn how to take control of ones life and how to respond to difficult situations with proper coping skills.

There are multiple forms of psychotherapy, each with its own system. The type of psychotherapy that’s right for a person depends on their specific situation. Psychotherapy is also called talk therapy, therapy, psychosocial therapy, and counseling.

Psychotherapy can be helpful in improving many mental illness problems, including:

Anxiety disorders, such as obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), phobias, panic disorder or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Mood disorders, such as depression or bipolar disorder

Addictions, such as alcoholism, drug dependence or compulsive gambling
Eating disorders, such as anorexia or bulimia

Personality disorders, such as borderline personality disorder or dependent personality disorder

Schizophrenia or other disorders that cause detachment from reality (psychotic disorders)

Not all who may benefit from psychotherapy has a mental disorder. Psychotherapy may assist with a many of life’s conflicts, and stresses that can affect any person. As an example:

Resolving conflicts with a persons partner, wife, husband, boy friend, girl friend, co-workers, and so on.
Relieving anxiety and stress due to work issues and or other situations.
Cope with major life ups and downs, the death of a loved one, the loss of a job, break ups, divorce.
Learn to ways to manage improper actions, like: as road rage or passive-aggressive behavior.
Understand, excepting acute, or serious medical health problem, such as cancer, long-term (chronic) pain, Parkinson’s, dementia, diabetes.
Recovering from rape, sexual abuse or witnessing violence, physical or
Cope with sexual issues, whether they’re caused by psychological or physical.
Sleep disorder: if one has trouble falling asleep or staying asleep; hypersomnia or insomnia.

In certain cases, psychotherapy can be as helpful as psychotropic medications, like: antidepressants. It all depends on ones specific situation, psychotherapy by it self may not be enough to lessen the issues of a mental health problems. One may also need psychotropic medications or other treatments protocols.

What are the risks:
Possibly, there is little risk getting psychotherapy. But it can open up painful issues and past experiences, one may feel emotionally unstable at times. But, many risks are lessen by working with a professional psychotherapist who can put together the type of therapy that can help.

The coping techniques that one can learn may help manage and over coming negative thoughts, feelings and phobias.

How one can get started:

First find a good psychotherapist. one can get a referral from a their medical doctor, checking with the health insurance plan, asking friends or family. Many companies do offer counseling services or referrals through to help their employees . One can also find a psychotherapist on their own, as an example, searching the Internet.
Checking the costs. If one has health insurance, finding out how much coverage does it offers for psychotherapy. Some health insurance plans cover only a certain number of psychotherapy sessions each year. Also, one can talk to their psychotherapist about payment options.

Before ones first psychotherapist appointment, they should think about what issues they would like to work on. While one also can sort out these things with their psychotherapist, having some ideas in advance can provide a good starting beginning.

When Checking the Psychotherapists Qualifications:
Before seeing the first appointment with a psychotherapist, one can check his or her certification, licensing, specialization, background, education. The term psychotherapist could be the person’s job title or indication of their specialization, education, training or licensure.

Trained psychotherapists can have a number of different job titles, depending on their education and role. Most have a master’s or doctoral degree with specific training in psychological counseling. Medical doctors who specialize in mental health (psychiatrists) can prescribe medications as well as provide psychotherapy.

Examples of psychotherapists include psychiatrists, psychologists, licensed professional counselors, licensed social workers, licensed marriage and family therapists, psychiatric nurses, or other licensed professionals with mental health training.

Make sure that the therapist you choose meets state certification and licensing requirements for his or her particular discipline. The key is to find a skilled therapist who can match the type and intensity of therapy with your needs.

What you can expect
Your first therapy session
At the first psychotherapy session, the therapist typically gathers information about you and your needs. You may be asked to fill out forms about your current and past physical and emotional health. It might take a few sessions for your therapist to fully understand your situation and concerns and to determine the best approach or course of action.

The first session is also an opportunity for you to interview your therapist to see if his or her approach and personality are going to work for you. Make sure you understand:

What type of therapy will be used
The goals of your treatment
The length of each session
How many therapy sessions you may need
Don’t hesitate to ask questions anytime during your appointment. If you don’t feel comfortable with the first psychotherapist you see, try someone else. Having a good fit with your therapist is critical for psychotherapy to be effective.

Starting psychotherapy
You’ll likely meet in your therapist’s office or a clinic once a week or every other week for a session that lasts about 45 to 60 minutes. Psychotherapy, usually in a group session with a focus on safety and stabilization, also can take place in a hospital if you’ve been admitted for treatment.

Types of psychotherapy
There are a number of effective types of psychotherapy. Some work better than others in treating certain disorders and conditions. In many cases, therapists use a combination of techniques. Your therapist will consider your particular situation and preferences to determine which approach may be best for you.

Although many types of therapies exist, some psychotherapy techniques proven to be effective include:

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), which helps you identify unhealthy, negative beliefs and behaviors and replace them with healthy, positive ones
Dialectical behavior therapy, a type of CBT that teaches behavioral skills to help you handle stress, manage your emotions and improve your relationships with others
Acceptance and commitment therapy, which helps you become aware of and accept your thoughts and feelings and commit to making changes, increasing your ability to cope with and adjust to situations
Psychodynamic and psychoanalysis therapies, which focus on increasing your awareness of unconscious thoughts and behaviors, developing new insights into your motivations, and resolving conflicts
Interpersonal psychotherapy, which focuses on addressing problems with your current relationships with other people to improve your interpersonal skills — how you relate to others, such as family, friends and colleagues
Supportive psychotherapy, which reinforces your ability to cope with stress and difficult situations
Psychotherapy is offered in different formats, including individual, couple, family or group therapy sessions, and it can be effective for all age groups.

During psychotherapy
For most types of psychotherapy, your therapist encourages you to talk about your thoughts and feelings and what’s troubling you. Don’t worry if you find it hard to open up about your feelings. Your therapist can help you gain more confidence and comfort as time goes on.

Because psychotherapy sometimes involves intense emotional discussions, you may find yourself crying, upset or even having an angry outburst during a session. Some people may feel physically exhausted after a session. Your therapist is there to help you cope with such feelings and emotions.

Your therapist may ask you to do “homework” — activities or practices that build on what you learn during your regular therapy sessions. Over time, discussing your concerns can help improve your mood, change the way you think and feel about yourself, and improve your ability to cope with problems.

Confidentiality
Except in rare and specific circumstances, conversations with your therapist are confidential. However, a therapist may break confidentiality if there is an immediate threat to safety (yours or someone else’s) or when required by state or federal law to report concerns to authorities. Your therapist can answer questions about confidentiality.

Length of psychotherapy
The number of psychotherapy sessions you need — as well as how frequently you need to see your therapist — depends on such factors as:

Your particular mental illness or situation
Severity of your symptoms
How long you’ve had symptoms or have been dealing with your situation
How quickly you make progress
How much stress you’re experiencing
How much your mental health concerns interfere with day-to-day life
How much support you receive from family members and others
Cost and insurance limitations
It may take only weeks to help you cope with a short-term situation. Or, treatment may last a year or longer if you have a long-term mental illness or other long-term concerns.

Results
Psychotherapy may not cure your condition or make an unpleasant situation go away. But it can give you the power to cope in a healthy way and to feel better about yourself and your life.

Getting the most out of psychotherapy
Take steps to get the most out of your therapy and help make it a success.

Make sure you feel comfortable with your therapist. If you don’t, look for another therapist with whom you feel more at ease.
Approach therapy as a partnership. Therapy is most effective when you’re an active participant and share in decision-making. Make sure you and your therapist agree about the major issues and how to tackle them. Together, you can set goals and measure progress over time.
Be open and honest. Success depends on willingness to share your thoughts, feelings and experiences, and to consider new insights, ideas and ways of doing things. If you’re reluctant to talk about certain issues because of painful emotions, embarrassment or fears about your therapist’s reaction, let your therapist know.
Stick to your treatment plan. If you feel down or lack motivation, it may be tempting to skip psychotherapy sessions. Doing so can disrupt your progress. Try to attend all sessions and to give some thought to what you want to discuss.
Don’t expect instant results. Working on emotional issues can be painful and may require hard work. You may need several sessions before you begin to see improvement.
Do your homework between sessions. If your therapist asks you to document your thoughts in a journal or do other activities outside of your therapy sessions, follow through. These homework assignments can help you apply what you’ve learned in the therapy sessions to your life.
If psychotherapy isn’t helping, talk to your therapist. If you don’t feel that you’re benefiting from therapy after several sessions, talk to your therapist about it. You and your therapist may decide to make some changes or try a different approach that may be more effective.
Clinical trials
Explore Mayo Clinic studies testing new treatments, interventions and tests as a means to prevent, detect, treat or manage this disease.

Shervan K Shahhian

What is Conversational model:

What is Conversational model? A conversational model is an artificial intelligence (AI) system that is designed to understand and respond to natural language inputs from humans in a way that mimics human conversation. It typically involves a machine learning algorithm that has been trained on large amounts of data to understand patterns in human language and generate coherent responses. Conversational models are often used in chatbots, virtual assistants, and other applications that involve human-machine interactions. These models can help to automate customer service, provide personalized recommendations, and assist with various tasks in a natural and intuitive way. There are various approaches to building conversational models, including rule-based systems, retrieval-based systems, and generative models. Each approach has its own strengths and weaknesses, and the choice of approach will depend on the specific use case and requirements of the application.

Shervan K Shahhian

What is Cognitive Analytic Therapy:

What is Cognitive Analytic Therapy:

Cognitive analytic therapy (CAT) is a form of psychotherapy that combines elements of cognitive therapy, psychodynamic therapy, and relational therapy. It is a time-limited therapy that typically lasts between 16–24 sessions.

CAT is based on the premise that our early experiences and relationships shape our patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving. These patterns become ingrained and can cause difficulties in our present relationships and daily functioning. The aim of CAT is to identify and understand these patterns, and to help the client develop new ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving that are more adaptive and lead to more fulfilling relationships and life experiences.

The therapy typically involves the following stages:

Reformulation: The therapist and client work together to develop a shared understanding of the client’s difficulties and patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Recognition: The client learns to recognize when they are engaging in unhelpful patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving, and to identify triggers for these patterns. Revision: The client works with the therapist to develop new ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving that are more adaptive and aligned with their goals and values. Termination: The therapy comes to an end, and the client is encouraged to continue to use the skills they have learned in their everyday life.

CAT has been found to be effective in treating a range of mental health difficulties, including depression, anxiety, personality disorders, and eating disorders.

Shervan K Shahhian

A Therapeutic Community (TC):

Therapeutic Community:

A therapeutic community (TC) is a structured and immersive treatment environment designed to facilitate personal growth, healing, and recovery from various psychological and behavioral issues. It is commonly used in the field of mental health and addiction treatment.

In a therapeutic community, individuals with similar challenges come together to create a supportive and therapeutic community. The primary goal is to provide a safe and structured environment where individuals can explore and address the underlying causes of their difficulties. The community functions as a microcosm of society, offering opportunities for individuals to learn and practice new behaviors, develop healthy relationships, and acquire skills necessary for successful reintegration into the larger community.

Key features of a therapeutic community may include:

Community as Method: The community itself becomes an essential part of the therapeutic process. Participants engage in various communal activities, such as group therapy, group decision-making, and shared responsibilities within the community.
Peer Support: Mutual support among community members is a fundamental aspect of a therapeutic community. Peers provide encouragement, empathy, and feedback, fostering a sense of belonging and acceptance.
Therapeutic Environment: The physical environment is designed to promote personal growth and self-reflection. This may include comfortable living spaces, common areas for group activities, and spaces for individual reflection.
Holistic Approach: Therapeutic communities typically adopt a holistic approach to treatment, considering the psychological, emotional, physical, and social dimensions of a person’s well-being. Various therapeutic modalities, such as counseling, group therapy, vocational training, and recreational activities, may be incorporated.
Shared Responsibility: Participants are encouraged to actively engage in decision-making processes within the community. This shared responsibility fosters a sense of ownership and accountability, promoting personal growth and autonomy.

Therapeutic communities can be found in residential treatment centers, inpatient facilities, or as part of community-based programs. They are often used in the treatment of substance abuse, mental health disorders, and other behavioral issues, providing individuals with a supportive and transformative environment to facilitate their recovery and overall well-being.

Shervan K Shahhian

What are the Twelve-step programs:

What are the Twelve-step programs?

The Twelve-step programs are a set of principles and guidelines originally developed by Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) as a method to address alcohol addiction. Over time, these programs have been adopted by various self-help and support groups to assist individuals in recovering from a wide range of addictive behaviors and compulsive habits. The Twelve-step programs are based on the belief that addiction is a spiritual, mental, and physical disease that can be overcome through a process of personal growth and reliance on a higher power. Here is an overview of the Twelve Steps:

Admitting powerlessness: Acknowledge that you are powerless over your addiction and that your life has become unmanageable.
Believing in a higher power: Come to believe that a higher power, however it is personally understood, can restore your sanity and provide the strength to overcome addiction.
Surrendering to a higher power: Make a decision to turn your will and life over to the care of your higher power.
Making a moral inventory: Take a fearless and honest inventory of yourself, examining your strengths, weaknesses, and past mistakes.
Admitting wrongs: Admit to yourself, a higher power, and another trusted person the exact nature of your wrongs.
Being ready for change: Become entirely ready to have your higher power remove your character defects.
Asking for removal: Humbly ask your higher power to remove your shortcomings.
Making amends: Make a list of all the people you have harmed and become willing to make amends to them.
Making direct amends: Make amends to those people wherever possible, except when doing so would harm them or others.
Continuing personal inventory: Continually take personal inventory, promptly admitting when you are wrong and making necessary changes.
Seeking spiritual connection: Seek through prayer and meditation to improve your conscious contact with your higher power, seeking knowledge of its will and the power to carry it out.
Carrying the message: Having had a spiritual awakening as a result of these steps, carry the message to others struggling with addiction and practice these principles in all areas of your life.

These steps encourage individuals to reflect, take responsibility for their actions, seek support, and develop a spiritual connection to aid in their recovery. It’s important to note that while the Twelve-step programs have helped many people, they are not the only approach to addiction recovery, and different individuals may find alternative methods more suitable for their needs.

Shervan K Shahhian

Psychiatrist and their field:

A psychiatrist is a medical doctor who specializes in the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders. They are trained in both medicine and psychology, allowing them to understand the complex interactions between physical and mental health.

Psychiatrists are licensed physicians who have completed medical school and obtained a medical degree (M.D. or D.O.). After medical school, they undergo specialized training in psychiatry during a residency program, which typically lasts four years. During their residency, psychiatrists gain practical experience in various psychiatric settings, such as hospitals, clinics, and research institutions.

As medical doctors, psychiatrists are qualified to assess the overall physical and mental well-being of individuals. They can conduct thorough evaluations to diagnose mental illnesses, including anxiety disorders, mood disorders (such as depression and bipolar disorder), schizophrenia, substance use disorders, and more. Psychiatrists are trained to differentiate between psychological conditions and medical conditions that may have psychiatric symptoms.

Once a diagnosis is made, psychiatrists develop and implement treatment plans for their patients. They can prescribe medications, such as antidepressants, antipsychotics, or mood stabilizers, to help manage symptoms. Additionally, psychiatrists may provide psychotherapy or recommend other non-pharmacological interventions, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), or psychosocial interventions.

Psychiatrists often collaborate with other healthcare professionals, including psychologists, social workers, and counselors, to provide comprehensive care to individuals with mental health concerns. They may also work in research, academia, or administration, contributing to advancements in the field of psychiatry and mental health.

It’s important to note that while psychiatrists are mental health professionals, not all mental health professionals are psychiatrists. Other professionals in the field include hypnotherapist, psychologists, psychiatric nurses, licensed clinical social workers, and licensed professional counselors, each with their own training and scope of practice.

Shervan K Shahhian

What is Rhetorical Epistemology?

Rhetorical epistemology is a field of study that explores the intersection between rhetoric and knowledge. It examines how language, discourse, and communication shape and influence our understanding of truth, beliefs, and knowledge. Rhetoric, in this context, refers to the art of persuasive communication and argumentation.

Rhetorical epistemology recognizes that knowledge is not solely based on objective facts or empirical evidence but is also constructed and mediated through language and communication practices. It emphasizes the role of rhetoric in shaping what is considered valid knowledge and how it is constructed, justified, and communicated within different contexts.

This field explores questions such as:

How does language and rhetoric influence the creation and dissemination of knowledge?
How do rhetorical strategies and argumentation shape our perception of truth and reality?
How do different social, cultural, and historical contexts affect the construction of knowledge?
How do power dynamics and ideology influence the rhetorical construction of knowledge?

Rhetorical epistemology draws from various disciplines such as philosophy, communication studies, linguistics, and rhetoric to examine the relationship between language, rhetoric, and knowledge. It is concerned with understanding the ways in which rhetorical practices and strategies shape our understanding of the world and influence our beliefs and values.

Overall, rhetorical epistemology offers insights into how language and communication practices contribute to the construction, validation, and dissemination of knowledge, shedding light on the complex relationship between rhetoric and our understanding of truth and reality.

Shervan K Shahhian

Understanding Theories in interpersonal communication:

Interpersonal communication is a complex field of study that focuses on how people interact and communicate with each other. There are several theories in interpersonal communication that help us understand the dynamics and processes involved in our interactions. Here are some key theories in this field:

Social Penetration Theory: This theory, proposed by Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor, suggests that interpersonal relationships develop through a gradual process of self-disclosure. As individuals disclose more personal information, their relationship deepens and becomes more intimate.

Uncertainty Reduction Theory: Developed by Charles Berger and Richard Calabrese, this theory explores how individuals seek to reduce uncertainty about others during initial interactions. It suggests that people engage in communication to gather information and predict the behavior of others, thereby reducing uncertainty and increasing the likelihood of forming relationships.

Social Exchange Theory: This theory, influenced by economics, views relationships as a series of exchanges involving rewards and costs. It suggests that people evaluate the benefits and drawbacks of a relationship and make decisions based on the perceived value they receive from it.

Relational Dialectics Theory: According to this theory, developed by Leslie Baxter and Barbara Montgomery, relationships are characterized by inherent tensions arising from opposing desires. These tensions include autonomy/connection, openness/closedness, and predictability/novelty. The theory emphasizes that relational partners must navigate and manage these tensions for the relationship to thrive.

Communication Privacy Management Theory: This theory, proposed by Sandra Petronio, explores how individuals manage privacy boundaries in their interactions. It suggests that people create rules to govern the disclosure and concealment of private information, and violations of these boundaries can impact relationships.

Communication Accommodation Theory: Developed by Howard Giles, this theory examines how individuals adjust their communication style to match or differ from that of their conversation partner. It emphasizes that accommodation can occur through convergence (similarities) or divergence (differences), and these choices can affect relationship outcomes.

Expectancy Violations Theory: This theory, formulated by Judee Burgoon, focuses on how individuals react when others violate their expectations in communication. It suggests that unexpected behaviors or violations can either create positive or negative impressions, depending on factors such as the communicator’s credibility and the nature of the violation.

These theories provide frameworks for understanding the various aspects of interpersonal communication, including relationship development, uncertainty management, relational dynamics, privacy, accommodation, and the impact of violated expectations. They help researchers and practitioners analyze and improve communication processes in personal and professional relationships.

Shervan K Shahhian

What we should know about Behavioral genetics:

Behavioral genetics is a field of study that investigates the role of genetic and environmental factors in shaping human behavior. It aims to understand how genes and the environment interact to influence various traits, including personality, intelligence, mental health, and social behaviors. Here are some key points to know about behavioral genetics:

Nature vs. Nurture: Behavioral genetics explores the complex interplay between nature (genetic factors) and nurture (environmental factors) in determining behavior. It recognizes that both genetic and environmental influences contribute to individual differences in behavior.
Heritability: Heritability is a statistical estimate that quantifies the proportion of phenotypic variation in a population that can be attributed to genetic differences. It does not indicate the extent to which an individual’s behavior is influenced by genes. Rather, it provides an estimate of the relative importance of genetic factors in explaining the observed variation in a trait within a particular population at a given time.
Twin and Family Studies: Twin studies, especially those involving identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins, are commonly employed in behavioral genetics. By comparing the similarities and differences in behavioral traits between different types of twins, researchers can estimate the contribution of genetic and environmental factors. Family studies, adoption studies, and studies involving twins reared apart are also conducted to examine genetic and environmental influences.
Molecular Genetics: Advances in molecular genetics have allowed researchers to identify specific genes associated with certain behavioral traits. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) are commonly employed to identify genetic variants linked to behavioral outcomes. However, it is important to note that individual genes usually have small effects, and the interplay of multiple genes and environmental factors is crucial in determining behavior.
Gene-Environment Interaction: Gene-environment interaction refers to the phenomenon where genetic factors influence the way individuals respond to environmental factors. Genes can modulate an individual’s sensitivity or susceptibility to particular environmental conditions, and environmental factors can modify gene expression. Understanding these interactions helps elucidate the complex relationship between genetics and behavior.
Epigenetics: Epigenetics studies modifications to gene expression that occur without changes to the underlying DNA sequence. It explores how environmental factors can influence gene expression and behavior by modifying the activity of genes. Epigenetic mechanisms play a role in mediating the effects of both genetic and environmental factors on behavior.
Neurogenetics: Neurogenetics investigates the genetic underpinnings of the structure and function of the brain and their relationship to behavior. It explores how genetic variations can influence the development, organization, and functioning of the nervous system, ultimately impacting behavior and cognition.

Behavioral genetics is a multidisciplinary field that combines genetics, psychology, neuroscience, and statistics to unravel the complex interplay between genes, environment, and behavior. It provides valuable insights into the understanding of human behavior, mental health disorders, and individual differences, contributing to fields like personalized medicine, psychology, and educational interventions.

Shervan K Shahhian