history – LIBERTY PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION

Parapsychology and Psychical Research are closely related:

The terms parapsychology and psychical research are closely related, but they are not identical. The main difference lies in their history, methods, and scope.

Psychical Research	Parapsychology
Began in the late 19th century.	Emerged in the 20th century as a more scientific discipline.
Studies all reported paranormal phenomena.	Focuses primarily on testing specific psi phenomena under controlled conditions.
Includes investigations of survival after death, hauntings, mediumship, apparitions, and psi.	Primarily studies extrasensory perception (ESP), psychokinesis (PK), and related phenomena.
Uses historical cases, eyewitness reports, field investigations, and experiments.	Emphasizes laboratory experiments, statistics, and controlled research.
More interdisciplinary, drawing from psychology, philosophy, history, and anthropology.	More closely aligned with experimental psychology and neuroscience.

Psychical Research

Psychical research is the older field, dating to the 1880s. Researchers sought to investigate claims of paranormal experiences using the best scientific methods available at the time.

Common topics may include:

Apparitions
Haunted locations
Mediumship
Near death experiences
Deathbed visions
Reincarnation research
Poltergeist cases
Survival of consciousness after death
Telepathy and clairvoyance

Psychical researchers may often combine:

Case investigations
Interviews
Historical documentation
Field observations
Laboratory experiments (when possible)

One of the earliest organizations devoted to this work was the Society for Psychical Research.

Parapsychology

Parapsychology developed later, especially in the 1930s, as researchers attempted to bring paranormal claims into the laboratory.

Typical research areas may include:

Telepathy
Clairvoyance
Precognition
Psychokinesis (PK)
Presentiment
Ganzfeld experiments
Remote viewing

Parapsychologists generally rely on:

Controlled experiments
Randomization
Statistical analysis
Replication attempts
Peer-reviewed publications

The emphasis is on determining whether there is evidence for psi that cannot readily be explained by chance, bias, or known psychological processes.

Areas of Overlap

Both fields investigate phenomena such as:

Telepathy
Clairvoyance
Precognition
Psychokinesis
Apparitions
Survival of consciousness
Mediumship

The difference is mainly how they study them.

For example:

A psychical researcher: might investigate dozens of reports of people seeing an apparition shortly before learning of a loved one’s death, comparing witness accounts and historical records.
A parapsychologist: might conduct a controlled experiment to test whether participants can accurately identify concealed images at rates above chance.

Modern Relationship

Today, the distinction is less rigid than it once was. Many researchers use methods from both traditions:

Researchers interested in survival after death often describe themselves as psychical researchers because they investigate spontaneous experiences, mediumship, and historical cases.
Researchers focused on laboratory studies of ESP and PK are more likely to identify as parapsychologists.

Both fields remain outside of controversial scientific consensus. While some studies have reported statistically significant findings, many claims have proven difficult to replicate consistently, and there is ongoing debate about methodology, interpretation, and the strength of the evidence.

In Summary

Psychical research: is the broader, older discipline that investigates a wide range of reported paranormal experiences using both field investigations and experiments.
Parapsychology: is the more specialized branch that emphasizes controlled scientific testing of psi phenomena, particularly ESP and psychokinesis.

You may think of it this way:

psychical research asks, “What kinds of unusual experiences are people reporting, and what might they mean?”

While parapsychology asks, “Can specific psi phenomena be demonstrated under controlled experimental conditions?”

Shervan K Shahhian

Relativism is the idea that truth, morality, knowledge, or values are not absolute or universal:

Relativism is the idea that truth, morality, knowledge, or values are not absolute or universal, but depend on perspective, culture, historical context, language, or individual experience.

In simple terms:

What is considered “true,” “right,” or “normal” can vary depending on who is judging it and from what context.

There maybe several major forms of relativism:

Moral Relativism

The belief that moral values differ across cultures or individuals, and there is no single universal moral standard.

Example:

One culture may see arranged marriage as moral and honorable.
Another may see it as restrictive or unethical.

A moral relativist would say moral judgments must be understood within cultural context.

Cultural Relativism

A concept often used in anthropology:

Practices and beliefs should be understood within the framework of the culture they come from, rather than judged by outside standards.

This does not necessarily mean “everything is acceptable,” but it encourages suspension of ethnocentric judgment.

Epistemic Relativism

The idea that knowledge or truth claims depend on frameworks, paradigms, or systems of interpretation.

For example:

Scientific knowledge,
Religious beliefs,
Indigenous ways of knowing,
may each operate within different assumptions about reality.

Aesthetic Relativism

The view that beauty and artistic value are subjective and culturally shaped.

Example:

Standards of beauty differ across societies and historical eras.

Relativism may often contrasted with:

Objectivism: some truths or morals are universally true.
Absolutism: fixed principles exist regardless of context.
Universalism: certain values apply to all humans.

Strengths of Relativism

Encourages tolerance and openness.
Helps reduce ethnocentrism.
Recognizes complexity and context.
Useful in multicultural understanding.

Criticisms of Relativism

Critics argue it may lead to:

Moral paralysis (“Who are we to judge?”)
Difficulty condemning harmful practices universally.
Contradictions (if all truth is relative, is that statement itself absolute?)

In psychology and human development, relativistic thinking may often be associated with:

cognitive flexibility,
dialectical thinking,
tolerance for ambiguity,
and psychological maturity.

It reflects an ability to hold multiple perspectives simultaneously without immediately collapsing into rigid certainty.

Shervan K Shahhian

Conspiratorial beliefs, what are they:

Conspiratorial beliefs, what are they:

Conspiratorial beliefs refer to the acceptance or endorsement of explanations that attribute significant events or situations to secret, often malevolent, plots by powerful individuals, organizations, or governments. These beliefs typically involve the idea that hidden forces are manipulating events behind the scenes, often for nefarious purposes.

Conspiratorial beliefs can cover a wide range of topics, including political events, scientific advancements, medical issues, and more. They often thrive on distrust of official narratives, skepticism toward mainstream information sources, and a desire to uncover hidden truths. Some common characteristics of conspiratorial beliefs include:

Secrecy and Hidden Agendas: Believers often think that powerful entities are hiding information from the public to maintain control or achieve their goals.

Skepticism of Official Accounts: Conspiratorial thinkers tend to question official explanations and are often skeptical of information provided by authorities.

Pattern Recognition: People may connect unrelated events or incidents, seeing patterns where there may be none, and attributing them to a grand conspiracy.

Anxiety and Uncertainty: Conspiratorial beliefs can arise in times of uncertainty, fear, or societal upheaval when individuals seek explanations for events that may be difficult to comprehend or accept.

Confirmation Bias: Individuals may selectively interpret information, giving more weight to evidence that supports their beliefs while dismissing contradictory evidence.

Examples of conspiratorial beliefs include theories about moon landings being faked, claims that certain diseases are intentionally spread, or beliefs in secret societies controlling world events. While skepticism and critical thinking are important, conspiratorial beliefs can sometimes lead to misinformation, mistrust, and a distorted view of reality. It’s crucial to evaluate information critically, rely on credible sources, and consider alternative perspectives without falling into the trap of unfounded conspiracy theories.

Shervan K Shahhian

What are Indigenous knowledge’s and methodologies:

What are Indigenous knowledge’s and methodologies:

Indigenous knowledge refers to the unique knowledge systems, practices, and ways of understanding the world that are developed and passed down through generations within Indigenous communities. This knowledge encompasses a broad range of subjects, including traditional ecological knowledge, medicinal practices, cultural rituals, storytelling, and sustainable resource management. Indigenous knowledge is deeply connected to the land, environment, and community, and it often reflects a holistic and interconnected understanding of the world.

Indigenous methodologies are the specific research approaches and methods that Indigenous communities use to gather, analyze, and interpret information. These methodologies are grounded in the cultural context, values, and worldview of the Indigenous people involved. Indigenous methodologies often prioritize community participation, oral traditions, and respect for the land and its resources. They may differ significantly from Western academic methodologies, emphasizing collaboration, reciprocity, and the integration of experiential and observational knowledge.

Both Indigenous knowledge and methodologies are essential for understanding and addressing issues faced by Indigenous communities, such as environmental sustainability, health, education, and social justice. Recognizing and respecting Indigenous knowledge is crucial for fostering meaningful partnerships and collaborations that benefit both Indigenous and non-Indigenous communities. It also contributes to the preservation of cultural diversity and promotes a more inclusive and equitable approach to knowledge production and research.

Shervan K Shahhian