Understanding Social Identity Theory:

Social Identity Theory (SIT) is a psychological theory it explains how people’s sense of self is influenced by the groups they belong to.

Core Concepts of Social Identity Theory:
Social Categorization
People categorize themselves and others into groups (e.g., race, religion, nationality, profession) to make sense of the social world.

Examples: “I am American,” “She is a doctor,” “They are students.”

Social Identification
After categorizing, individuals adopt the identity of the group they belong to. They start to conform to the norms and values of that group.

This shapes self-esteem and influences behavior.

Social Comparison
People compare their in-group (us) to out-groups (them).

This often leads to in-group favoritism (preferring one’s own group) and out-group discrimination (stereotyping or hostility).

Cycle of Identity Formation:
Belong to a group →

Adopt group norms and identity →

Compare with other groups →

Enhance self-esteem based on group status

Psychological Effects:
Boosts self-esteem if the in-group is perceived positively.

Leads to bias, prejudice, or conflict when out-groups are devalued.

Explains group behavior, loyalty, and even intergroup hostility (e.g., racism, nationalism, sports rivalries).

Real-Life Examples:
Sports Fans: Identifying with a team and disliking rivals.

Nationalism: Feeling pride in one’s country and looking down on others.

Workplace: Strong company loyalty vs. “other departments” or competitors.

Ethnic or Religious Identity: Can promote pride, but also conflict when exclusion or prejudice arise.

Why It Matters:
Social Identity Theory helps explain:

Prejudice and discrimination

Group dynamics and loyalty

Radicalization and group-based conflict

The power of belonging and identity in shaping behavior.

Shervan K Shahhian

Understanding Minority Influence Theory:

Minority Influence Theory explains how a small group or even a single individual can influence the attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors of the majority. It contrasts with majority influence (conformity), where people tend to go along with the larger group. Minority influence is key to social change — examples include civil rights movements, scientific innovations, or paradigm shifts in society.

Key Concepts of Minority Influence Theory

1. Consistency:
 Minorities must present their views consistently over time. This shows confidence and commitment, making others more likely to re-evaluate their own views.

2. Commitment:
 When the minority shows dedication — especially by making sacrifices — it increases their credibility and influence. This is often referred to as the “augmentation principle.”

3. Flexibility:
 While consistency is important, being overly rigid can backfire. Minorities need to show a willingness to compromise to avoid seeming dogmatic.

4. Cognitive Conflict:
 The minority view creates internal conflict in the majority, causing people to consider the argument more deeply (a central route to persuasion in the Elaboration Likelihood Model).

Supporting Research

 In a classic experiment, participants in a group were shown blue slides. A consistent minority (confederates) repeatedly called them green. This influenced some participants to also say green, especially when the minority was consistent.

 Showed that flexible minorities (those willing to negotiate) were more persuasive than rigid, uncompromising ones.

Real-Life Examples

• Civil Rights Leaders (e.g., Martin Luther King Jr.)
• Suffragettes
• Environmental Activists (e.g., Greta Thunberg)

These individuals or groups began as minorities, but through consistency, commitment, and persuasive communication, they shifted public opinion over time.

Shervan K Shahhian

Cognitive Dissonance It explains the mental discomfort (dissonance) people feel when they hold two or more contradictory beliefs, values, or attitudes, or when their behavior conflicts with their beliefs. Core Idea:
When people experience inconsistency between their thoughts and actions, they feel psychological discomfort and are motivated to reduce that discomfort by:

Changing their beliefs

Changing their behavior

Justifying or rationalizing the inconsistency

Example:
A person who smokes cigarettes but knows smoking is harmful might experience dissonance.

To reduce it, they might:

Change behavior: Quit smoking.

Change belief: Downplay the risks (“My grandfather smoked and lived to 90”).

Rationalize: “I’m too stressed — smoking helps me cope.”

Cognitive Dissonance Reduction Strategies:
Avoiding conflicting information

Seeking support or affirmation

Reinterpreting evidence

Trivializing the inconsistency

Applications:
Marketing: Brands use it to encourage loyalty or buyer justification (“post-purchase rationalization”).

Health: Motivates behavior change (e.g., quitting harmful habits).

Social psychology: Explains attitude shifts, group behavior, and belief systems.

Shervan K Shahhian

Understanding Elaboration Likelihood Model:

The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) is a theory in psychology and communication that explains how people are persuaded. It identifies two main routes through which persuasion occurs:

1. Central Route (High Elaboration)
   Definition: Persuasion through careful and thoughtful consideration of the arguments in the message.
   Used when: The person is motivated and able to process the message.
   Features:
   Deep processing of information
   Focus on logic, evidence, and reasoning
   Leads to lasting attitude change
   Example: A person reads a detailed research article before deciding which car to buy.
2. Peripheral Route (Low Elaboration)
   Definition: Persuasion that occurs due to superficial cues rather than the strength of the message.
   Used when: The person has low motivation or limited ability to process the information.
   Features:
   Shallow processing
   Influenced by cues like attractiveness, credibility, or emotional appeal
   Leads to temporary or weak attitude change
   Example: Someone buys a product because a celebrity endorsed it, not because they researched its quality.

Factors Influencing Route Choice
Factor Central Route Peripheral Route Motivation High (e.g., personal relevance)Low (e.g., disinterest)Ability High (e.g., knowledge, focus)Low (e.g., distraction, fatigue)Need for Cognition High Low

Key Takeaways
The central route leads to stronger, more enduring attitude change.
The peripheral route works better for quick, low-effort persuasion.
Advertisers, educators, and politicians use both routes depending on their goals and audience.
Shervan K Shahhian

Understanding Normative and Informational Social Influence:

Normative and Informational Social Influence are two key concepts in social psychology that explain why people conform to the behavior or beliefs of others.

Normative Social Influence

• Definition: Conforming to be liked or accepted by a group.
• Driven by: The desire for social approval and fear of rejection.
• Examples:
• Laughing at a joke you don’t find funny because everyone else is laughing.
• Dressing a certain way to fit in with a peer group.
• Key Feature: Public compliance without necessarily changing internal beliefs.

Informational Social Influence

• Definition: Conforming because you believe others have accurate information.
• Driven by: The desire to be correct, especially in ambiguous or unfamiliar situations.
• Examples:
• Following a crowd during an emergency because you assume they know what to do.
• Accepting a peer’s answer in class because you think they’re more knowledgeable.
• Key Feature: Private acceptance — your beliefs actually change.

Comparison

Feature Normative Influence Informational Influence Motivation Need for approval Need to be right Type of conformity Public compliance Private acceptance Situations Social pressures Ambiguous/uncertain scenarios Lasting change in belief? Often temporary Often lasting

Shervan K Shahhian

Understanding Theory of Planned Behavior:

The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) is a psychological theory that explains how people make decisions to engage in specific behaviors.

Core Idea:

People’s intentions to perform a behavior are the most important predictors of whether they will actually do it. These intentions are influenced by three main factors.

Key Components:

Attitude toward the behavior

• This refers to the person’s positive or negative evaluation of performing the behavior.
• Example: “Exercising every day is good for my health” → Positive attitude.

Subjective norms

• These are the perceived social pressures to perform or not perform the behavior.
• Example: “My friends and family think I should stop smoking.”

Perceived behavioral control

• This reflects the person’s belief in how easy or difficult it is to perform the behavior.
• Example: “I can go to the gym even if I have a busy schedule.”

Formula (conceptually):

Intention → Behavior, where:
Intention = Attitude + Subjective Norm + Perceived Control

Example:

Behavior: Quitting smoking

• Attitude: Believes smoking is harmful
• Subjective Norm: Friends and partner want them to quit
• Perceived Control: Feels confident about using nicotine patches and avoiding triggers
  → Strong intention to quit → Likely to follow through

Applications:

• Health behavior change (e.g., diet, exercise)
• Marketing and consumer behavior
• Environmental behavior (e.g., recycling)
• Public policy interventions

Shervan K Shahhian

Chemical Signaling in the Brain, what is that:

“CONSULT A PSYCHIATRIST”

Chemical signaling in the brain refers to how brain cells (neurons) communicate with each other using neurotransmitters — chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses, the small gaps between neurons.

Here’s a breakdown of the process:

1. Neurotransmitter Release

• When a neuron fires an electrical impulse (action potential), it reaches the axon terminal.
• This causes vesicles (tiny sacs) filled with neurotransmitters to fuse with the membrane and release their contents into the synaptic cleft.

2. Synaptic Transmission

• The neurotransmitters cross the synaptic gap and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron (the receiving cell).
• This binding can either:
• Excite the neuron (making it more likely to fire),
• Or inhibit it (making it less likely to fire).

3. Signal Termination

Once the neurotransmitters have done their job, the signal is stopped in several ways:

• Reuptake: The neurotransmitter is reabsorbed into the presynaptic neuron.
• Enzymatic degradation: Enzymes break down the neurotransmitter.
• Diffusion: It drifts away from the synaptic gap.

Key Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitter Function Motivation, reward, movement Mood, sleep, appetite Learning, memory, muscle activation Main inhibitory neurotransmitter Main excitatory neurotransmitter Alertness, arousal, stress response

Why It Matters

Chemical signaling is central to everything the brain does, from thinking and feeling to moving and sleeping. Dysfunction in this system might be linked to conditions like:

• Depression 
• Schizophrenia
• Parkinson’s disease 
• Anxiety disorders 

Shervan K Shahhian

“CONSULT A PSYCHIATRIST”

Psychopharmacology, what is it exactly:

Psychopharmacology is the scientific study of how drugs affect mood, behavior, cognition, and mental processes. It combines knowledge from psychology, neuroscience, pharmacology, and psychiatry.

Key Aspects of Psychopharmacology:

Drug Effects on the Brain:

• Studies how drugs interact with the central nervous system (CNS).
• Focuses on neurotransmitters like dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, GABA, and glutamate.

Types of Psychoactive Drugs:

• Antidepressants
• Antipsychotics
• Anxiolytics
• Stimulants
• Mood stabilizers

Therapeutic Uses:

• Treating mental health disorders such as depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and ADHD.

Side Effects & Tolerability:

• Includes understanding adverse effects, tolerance, dependence, and withdrawal.

Individual Differences:

• Effects can vary based on their medical history, genetics, metabolism, age, sex, and psychological state.

Mechanisms of Action:

• Explores how drugs alter neural pathways, receptor sensitivity, and chemical signaling in the brain.

Why It Matters:

Psychopharmacology is crucial in clinical psychology, psychiatry, and mental health treatment, helping professionals tailor medication plans to improve patient outcomes while minimizing side effects.

Shervan K Shahhian

Attribution Theory, what is it:
Attribution Theory is a psychological framework that explains how people interpret and assign causes to behavior - either their own or others’. Developed primarily by Fritz Heider and later expanded by Harold Kelley and Bernard Weiner, it helps us understand why someone behaved a certain way.
Core Idea:

People try to make sense of behavior by attributing it to internal or external causes.
Two Main Types of Attribution:

Internal (Dispositional) Attribution
The behavior is due to the person’s personality, traits, motives, or choices.
Example: “She failed the exam because she’s lazy.”

External (Situational) Attribution
The behavior is caused by outside circumstances or the environment.
Example: “She failed the exam because the test was too hard.”

Key Models:

Heider’s Theory (1958):
We are “naive psychologists” trying to understand others’ behavior through cause-and-effect.

Kelley’s Covariation Model (1967):
 People make attributions by considering:
Consensus: Do others behave the same way?
Distinctiveness: Is this behavior unusual for the person?
Consistency: Does this behavior happen repeatedly?

Weiner’s Attribution Theory (1986):
 Focused on achievement and motivation and categorized causes along three dimensions:
Locus (internal vs. external)
Stability (stable vs. unstable over time)
Controllability (controllable vs. uncontrollable)

Why It Matters:

Attribution shapes how we judge others, react emotionally, and decide how to act. For instance:
In education, teachers’ attributions about student performance affect expectations and feedback.
In relationships, how we explain a partner’s actions can increase or reduce conflict.
In mental health, people who attribute negative events to internal, stable, and uncontrollable causes may be more prone to depression.

Shervan K Shahhian