Availability Heuristic:

Availability Heuristic is a mental shortcut (or cognitive bias) in which people judge the likelihood or frequency of an event based on how easily examples come to mind. The easier it is to recall an instance, the more common or probable we assume it is — even if that assumption is inaccurate.

Examples:

News Media Influence
 After watching news stories about airplane crashes, a person might overestimate the danger of flying — even though statistically, air travel is much safer than driving.

Fear of Shark Attacks
 Because shark attacks are dramatic and widely reported, people often think they’re more common than they actually are.

Personal Experience
 If someone you know recently got sick from food poisoning at a restaurant, you may judge that restaurant (or similar ones) as unsafe, even if it was a rare incident.

Why It Happens:

• Vividness: Emotional or dramatic events are easier to remember.
• Recency: Recently encountered information is easier to recall.
• Media Coverage: The more something is covered, the more we think it happens frequently.

Impact:

• Can skew risk assessment
• Leads to poor decision-making
• Feeds into stereotypes or irrational fears

Shervan K Shahhian

Understanding Anchoring Bias:
Anchoring Bias is a cognitive bias where people rely too heavily on the first piece of information they receive (the “anchor”) when making decisions or judgments.

Example:

If you’re shopping for a watch and the first one you see costs $1,000, all the other watches - even those that cost $500 - might seem like a bargain, even if $500 is still more than you’d usually spend. Your judgment is anchored to that initial $1,000 price.
How It Affects Thinking:

Decision-making: People often base decisions on an arbitrary reference point.
Negotiation: The first number mentioned often sets the tone for the entire discussion.
Estimations: When asked to guess a value (e.g., population, prices), people are influenced by numbers previously presented - even if they are unrelated.

Psychological Insight:

Anchoring happens because we adjust our judgments away from the anchor, but not far enough. The brain uses the anchor as a starting point, then makes small shifts - often insufficient ones.

How to Avoid It:

Delay judgment until you gather more information.
Consider alternative anchors or create your own based on objective data.
Be aware when someone (like a marketer or negotiator) is intentionally setting an anchor to influence your thinking.

Shervan K Shahhian

Understanding Confirmation Bias:

Confirmation Bias is a cognitive bias where people tend to:

• Seek out,
• Interpret,
• Favor, and
• Recall
  information in a way that confirms their pre-existing beliefs or values, while giving disproportionately less attention to conflicting evidence

Example:

If someone believes that a certain diet is healthy, they may:

• Focus on articles and testimonials that support that belief.
• Dismiss or ignore scientific studies that suggest the diet might be harmful.

How It Works:

• Selective exposure: Choosing sources of information that align with your views.
• Biased interpretation: Twisting ambiguous evidence to fit your belief.
• Memory recall: Remembering supporting evidence better than contradictory evidence.

Why It’s a Problem:

• It can reinforce stereotypes, misconceptions, and false beliefs.
• It impairs critical thinking and objective decision-making.
• It plays a major role in political polarization and scientific denialism.

How to Counter It:

• Actively seek opposing viewpoints.
• Ask yourself: “What would prove me wrong?”
• Use critical thinking frameworks and rely on peer-reviewed evidence.
• Practice intellectual humility — being open to changing your mind.

Shervan K Shahhian

Hamilton Depression rating scale:

(Consult a psychiatrist for advice.)

The Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS or HAM-D) is one of the most widely used clinician-administered depression assessment tools. Developed by Max Hamilton in 1960, it’s primarily used to assess the severity of depressive symptoms in individuals already diagnosed with depression.

Purpose:

To quantify the severity of depression in adults and to evaluate the effectiveness of treatment over time.

 Structure:

The original version includes 17 items (HDRS-17), though extended versions can have up to 21 or 24 items.

Each item is scored by the clinician based on the patient’s symptoms over the past week.

 Scoring:

Each item is rated on either a 3-point or 5-point scale:

0 = Absent

Higher scores indicate greater severity.

Common Items Include:

Depressed mood

Feelings of guilt

Suicide ideation

Insomnia (early, middle, late)

Work and activities

Psychomotor agitation or retardation

Anxiety (psychic and somatic)

Somatic symptoms (gastrointestinal, general)

Hypochondriasis

Loss of weight

Insight

Interpretation (HDRS-17 Total Score):

Score Range Depression Severity0–7Normal (no depression)8–13Mild depression14–18Moderate depression19–22Severe depression≥23Very severe depression

 Notes:

Requires a trained clinician to administer.

Subject to inter-rater variability if not standardized.

Best used in conjunction with clinical judgment and other diagnostic tools.

Shervan K Shahhian