Uncategorized – Page 11 – LIBERTY PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION

Grief is a natural, universal response to loss:

Grief is a natural, universal response to loss. Although it is most often associated with the death of a loved one, grief may also follow divorce, the loss of health, unemployment, miscarriage, the end of a relationship, or any significant life change. There may not be a single “correct” way to grieve. People’s responses vary widely depending on their personality, culture, beliefs, relationship to what was lost, coping skills, and available support.

Here are some of the broad categories of normal human responses to grief and loss:

1. Emotional Responses

These could be the most recognizable aspects of grief.

Sadness and sorrow
Yearning or longing for the person or what was lost
Crying spells
Anger or irritability
Guilt or regret
Anxiety or fear
Loneliness
Emotional numbness
Relief (especially after a prolonged illness or suffering)
Love and gratitude
Hope that gradually returns
Moments of joy mixed with sadness
Substance abuse

Experiencing positive emotions may not mean that someone loved the person less.

2. Cognitive (Thinking) Responses

Grief may affect how people think and process information.

Difficulty concentrating
Forgetfulness
Confusion
Feeling mentally “foggy”
Preoccupation with the deceased or the loss
Replaying events repeatedly
Questioning meaning or purpose
Changes in priorities
Wondering “What if…?”
Temporary disbelief or feeling the loss isn’t real

3. Physical Responses: Consult with a Medical Doctor.

Grief is experienced throughout the body: Consult with a Medical Doctor.

Fatigue
Sleep disturbances
Appetite changes
Headaches
Muscle tension
Chest tightness
Feeling physically weak
Upset stomach or digestive problems
Changes in energy
Increased sensitivity to illness

These symptoms maybe common and often lessen with time.

4. Behavioral Responses

People may change how they behave while grieving.

Withdrawing from others
Seeking social support
Crying
Talking about the deceased
Visiting meaningful places
Keeping belongings
Looking at photographs
Changes in work performance
Restlessness
Reduced motivation
Temporary forgetfulness
Increased religious or spiritual activities

5. Social Responses

Grief may influence relationships.

Wanting more companionship
Wanting solitude
Feeling misunderstood
Becoming closer to family
Conflict with others due to different grieving styles
Reduced participation in social activities
Seeking support groups

6. Spiritual or Existential Responses

Many people reconsider life’s deeper questions.

Searching for meaning
Questioning faith
Strengthening spiritual beliefs or the opposite
Feeling angry with God
Wondering about life after death
Reflecting on mortality
Reassessing personal values
Developing greater appreciation for life

7. Sensory and Perceptual Experiences

Many bereaved people may report experiences that can be startling but are generally considered normal during grieving.

These may include:

Briefly seeing the deceased
Hearing the deceased’s voice
Sensing their presence
Vivid dreams of the deceased
Smelling a familiar perfume or scent
Feeling as though the person is nearby

These experiences maybe called bereavement related anomalous experiences or after death communications (ADCs) in bereavement research. They are surprisingly common, are not usually signs of mental illness, and often provide comfort rather than distress.

8. Continuing Bonds

Modern grief research recognizes that many people may maintain an ongoing psychological connection with the deceased.

Examples include:

Talking to themselves: deceased
Keeping traditions alive
Feeling guided by their memory
Carrying treasured possessions
Celebrating birthdays or anniversaries
Living according to values they shared

This is described by the Continuing Bonds Theory and is generally viewed as a healthy aspect of adaptation when it supports rather than interferes with daily life.

9. Meaning Making and Growth

Over time, some people begin to integrate the loss into their lives.

This may include:

Greater resilience
Increased compassion
Changed life priorities
Stronger relationships
Personal growth
New purpose
Increased appreciation for life
Deeper spirituality
Acceptance of life’s uncertainty

This process is sometimes referred to as post traumatic growth, although not everyone experiences it.

Common Features of Normal Grief

Normal grief may include:

Waves of intense emotion that gradually become less overwhelming
Good days and bad days
Emotional “triggers” from anniversaries, music, or places
Missing the deceased for years while still living a meaningful life
Gradual adaptation rather than “getting over” the loss

Grief may not be a series of neat stages. While the ideas: (denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance) are well known, in modern psychology recognizes that grief is highly individual. People may experience some, all, or none of these reactions, and not in any particular order.

When Grief May Need Professional Support

While grief itself may not be a mental disorder, professional evaluation can be helpful if someone experiences:

Persistent inability to function for an extended period
Intense despair that does not gradually soften over time
Persistent feelings that life is not worth living
Severe depression or anxiety
Heavy reliance on alcohol or drugs
Symptoms consistent with Prolonged Grief Disorder, where intense grief remains persistent and significantly impairs daily life well beyond what is typical for the person’s cultural context.

The Bottom Line

Grief affects the whole person, emotionally, physically, mentally, socially, spiritually, and behaviorally. Most grief reactions, even those that feel unusual (such as sensing the presence of a deceased loved one), fall within the broad spectrum of normal human responses to loss. Rather than following a predictable sequence, healthy grieving usually involves gradually learning to live with the loss while maintaining a meaningful connection to what or whom has been lost.

Shervan K Shahhian

Parapsychology: Anomalous Cognition (AC) is a term used primarily in parapsychology:

Anomalous Cognition (AC) is a term used primarily in parapsychology to describe the acquisition of information without any known sensory, inferential, or conventional means of communication. The term was introduced to avoid assumptions about the mechanism involved (such as “telepathy” or “clairvoyance”).

Definition

Anomalous cognition could be defined as:

The apparent acquisition of accurate information about an object, person, place, or event through means not explained by the known senses or ordinary reasoning.

The term may deliberately descriptive rather than explanatory. It simply states that the information appears anomalous, it may not claim to know how it occurred.

Why the Term Was Created

Researchers might have moved away from terms like:

Telepathy

Clairvoyance

Precognition

ESP (Extrasensory Perception)

because those terms could imply specific mechanisms.

Instead, “anomalous cognition” may allow researchers to investigate unusual information acquisition without assuming whether it is due to psi, unknown psychological processes, statistical chance, or some other explanation.

Examples of Anomalous Cognition Research

Researchers may have studied anomalous cognition using controlled laboratory experiments such as:

Remote Viewing: describing distant locations or hidden targets.

Ganzfeld Experiments: testing for information transfer under sensory reduction.

Forced choice ESP Tests: guessing hidden symbols or cards.

Free response Experiments: describing unknown images or events.

Dream Telepathy Studies: examining whether dreams contain information about target images.

Proposed Types of Information Acquisition

If anomalous cognition exists, it may include information that appears to come from:

another person’s thoughts (telepathy)

distant locations (clairvoyance)

future events (precognition)

hidden objects

unknown facts later verified

Whether these are truly distinct phenomena or different expressions of the same underlying process remains an open question.

Scientific Status

The scientific community remains divided.

Supportive researchers argue:

Some laboratory studies report small but statistically significant effects that are difficult to explain by chance alone.

Meta analyses of certain paradigms, such as Ganzfeld and some remote viewing studies, may have found effects above chance, though interpretations remain debated.

The evidence warrants continued investigation.

Controversial skeptical researchers always argue:

Findings are often small and difficult to replicate consistently.

Methodological issues, publication bias, sensory leakage, or statistical artifacts may explain the results.

There is no widely accepted theoretical mechanism consistent with established physics or neuroscience.

As a result, anomalous cognition is not accepted as an established phenomenon within mainstream controversial psychology or neuroscience, though it remains an very active topic of research in parapsychology and consciousness studies.

Difference Between Anomalous Cognition and Remote Viewing

Anomalous cognition is the general phenomenon of apparently acquiring information by unknown means.

Remote viewing is a specific experimental protocol designed to test anomalous cognition under controlled conditions.

In other words:

Remote Viewing is one method used to investigate anomalous cognition.

Related Concepts

Parapsychology

Psychical Research

Remote Viewing

Ganzfeld experiments

Telepathy

Clairvoyance

Precognition

Anomalous experiences

Consciousness studies

Summary

Anomalous cognition is a neutral scientific term used in parapsychology for the apparent acquisition of information through means not currently explained by known sensory processes or conventional communication. It does not assume that psi exists; rather, it provides a framework for investigating such claims while remaining agnostic about the underlying mechanism. Although some researchers interpret certain experimental findings as suggestive of anomalous cognition, the evidence remains controversial, and the phenomenon has not been established as part of mainstream controversial scientific consensus.

Shervan K Shahhian

Future Oriented fear is the experience of fear, worry, or apprehension about events that have not yet happened,…

Future oriented fear is the experience of fear, worry, or apprehension about events that have not yet happened but are anticipated to occur. It is a normal human response that helps people prepare for potential threats, but when it becomes excessive, it may interfere with daily life.

Definition

Future oriented fear maybe an emotional and cognitive state characterized by:

Anticipating negative outcomes.
Imagining possible dangers or failures.
Feeling uncertain about what lies ahead.
Attempting to predict or control future events.

Unlike fear triggered by an immediate, present danger, future-oriented fear arises from expectation rather than direct experience.

Fear vs. Anxiety

Although these terms maybe used interchangeably, psychology may distinguish it in this manner:

Fear	Anxiety
Response to an immediate, identifiable threat	Response to anticipated or uncertain future threats
Present focused	Future focused
Usually short lived	May be persistent or chronic
Activates immediate survival responses	Involves anticipation and worry

Future oriented fear maybe therefore often closely related to anxiety, especially when the anticipated threat is uncertain.

Common Examples

People may experience future oriented fear about:

Losing a loved one.
Developing a serious illness.
Financial hardship.
Losing a job.
Failing an exam.
Public speaking.
Relationship problems.
Natural disasters.
Aging or death.
Making the wrong life decision.

Psychological Components

Future oriented fear involves several interacting processes:

Catastrophic thinking: Expecting the worst possible outcome.
Uncertainty intolerance: Difficulty accepting that the future cannot be fully predicted.
Negative prediction bias: Overestimating the likelihood of bad events.
Selective attention: Focusing on possible threats rather than opportunities.
Mental simulation: Rehearsing future scenarios, often repeatedly.

Physical Symptoms

Future oriented fear may activate the body’s stress response, leading to:

Increased heart rate: Consult with a Medical Doctor.
Muscle tension: Consult with a Medical Doctor.
Sweating: Consult with a Medical Doctor.
Upset stomach: Consult with a Medical Doctor.
Restlessness: Consult with a Medical Doctor.
Difficulty concentrating: Consult with a Psychiatrist.
Sleep problems: Consult with a Medical Doctor.
Fatigue: Consult with a Medical Doctor.

When Is It Helpful?

A moderate amount of future oriented fear maybe adaptive because it:

Encourages planning.
Motivates preparation.
Promotes caution.
Helps avoid unnecessary risks.
Improves problem solving.

For example, worrying about an upcoming exam may motivate someone to study harder.

When Does It Become a Problem?

It may become problematic when it:

Persists for weeks or months.
Is out of proportion to the actual risk.
Leads to avoidance behaviors.
Causes significant distress.
Interferes with work, school, or relationships.

Excessive future oriented fear maybe a common feature of Generalized Anxiety Disorder?, but it may also occur with other anxiety related conditions.

Evidence Based Ways to Manage It

Research supports several approaches:

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Helps identify and challenge unrealistic predictions and develop more balanced thinking.
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT): Encourages accepting uncertainty while acting in line with personal values.
Mindfulness: Brings attention back to the present moment instead of imagined future scenarios.
Problem solving: Focuses on practical steps for concerns that are within one’s control.
Relaxation techniques: Such as diaphragmatic breathing and progressive muscle relaxation, to reduce physiological arousal: Consult with a Psychiatrist.
Regular exercise and healthy sleep habits: May reduce overall anxiety and improve resilience.

A Simple Illustration

Imagine someone waiting for the results of a medical test:Consult with a Psychiatrist.

Present reality: They do not yet know the outcome.
Future oriented fear: They imagine receiving bad news, becoming seriously ill, and all the consequences that might follow.
Healthy response: Acknowledge the uncertainty, prepare for different possibilities if needed, and focus on what may be controlled while awaiting the results.

Summary

Future oriented fear is the anticipation of possible future threats. In moderate amounts, it is a normal and adaptive response that promotes preparation and caution. When it becomes excessive, persistent, or difficult to control, it may contribute to anxiety disorders and reduce quality of life. Evidence based approaches such as CBT, ACT, mindfulness, and practical problem solving may help people respond to uncertainty in healthier and more flexible ways.

Shervan K Shahhian

Momentary Thoughts are brief, short lived thoughts that quickly pass through the mind:

Momentary Thoughts are brief, short lived thoughts that quickly pass through the mind. They may appear automatically in response to situations, emotions, memories, sensations, or environmental cues.

In psychology, they maybe considered part of the normal flow of consciousness and may include:

Quick impressions

Passing worries

Sudden memories

Fleeting judgments

Random associations

Brief emotional reactions

Examples:

“Did I lock the door?”

“That person looks familiar.”

“I hope I don’t embarrass myself.”

“I should call my friend later.”

These thoughts usually:

Last only seconds or minutes

Change rapidly

May or may not reflect a person’s deeper beliefs

May occur automatically without deliberate intention

Some momentary thoughts are neutral, while others may be positive, anxious, intrusive, creative, or emotionally charged.

In cognitive psychology and therapies like Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, therapists may distinguish between:

Momentary automatic thoughts: (immediate reactions)

Core beliefs: (deeper, long standing assumptions about oneself or the world)

For example:

Momentary thought: “I failed this test; I’m terrible.”

Underlying core belief: “I’m not good enough.”

Momentary thoughts are a normal part of mental activity. What often matters psychologically is:

how frequently certain thoughts occur,

how strongly a person believes them,

and whether they influence emotions or behavior.

Shervan K Shahhian

An Anxious Prediction is a thought pattern:

An Anxious Prediction is a thought pattern where a person automatically expects something negative, threatening, embarrassing, or harmful to happen in the future, often without solid evidence.

It is common in anxiety disorders, stress reactions, and everyday worry.

Examples:

“I’m probably going to fail the interview.”
“They must be upset with me.”
“Something bad is going to happen.”
“I’ll embarrass myself.”
“If I make one mistake, everything will fall apart.”

Psychologically, anxious predictions are connected to:

Catastrophic thinking: imagining worst case outcomes
Future oriented fear
Threat bias: the mind scanning for danger
Intolerance of uncertainty: discomfort with not knowing what will happen

The anxious mind may treat predictions as if they are facts rather than possibilities.

A helpful distinction is:

Thought Type	Example
Realistic planning	“I should prepare in case there are challenges.”
Anxious prediction	“It’s definitely going to go badly.”

Common signs of anxious prediction:

Overestimating danger
Underestimating coping ability
Rehearsing negative scenarios repeatedly
Seeking reassurance
Avoiding situations because of imagined outcomes

Possibly in therapies like Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, people are taught to:

Notice the prediction
Label it as a thought, not a certainty
Examine evidence
Tolerate uncertainty
Refocus on present-moment reality

A useful reframing may be

“This is an anxious prediction, not a guaranteed outcome.”

That shift helps create psychological distance from the fear rather than becoming fused with it.

Shervan K Shahhian

Mr. Ted Owens was The Greatest American Psychic, UFO Contactee and Prophet for some:

Ted Owens was The greatest American Psychic Claimant, UFO Contactee and Prophet for some, who became known as “The PK Man” (“PK” standing for psychokinesis, or mind over matter effects). He claimed that he was in telepathic communication with extraterrestrial or “Space Intelligence” entities that enabled him to influence physical events, including weather, electrical systems, UFO appearances, and even large scale natural phenomena.

Background

Prophet Owens served in the U.S. Navy during World War II and later studied at Duke University, where he worked with pioneering parapsychologist J. B. Rhine in the university’s parapsychology laboratory.

His Claims

Prophet Owens asserted that “Space Intelligences” had altered his mind, allowing him to communicate with them telepathically. He claimed these intelligences could:

Produce storms, droughts, and earthquakes.
Cause power failures and mechanical malfunctions.
Generate UFO sightings.
Influence public events and human behavior.
Provide him with information about future events.

Many of his claims centered on documented predictions mailed to scientists, journalists, and officials before events occurred. He maintained extensive files of correspondence and newspaper clippings that he believed supported his abilities.

Jeffrey Mishlove’s Investigation

Parapsychologist Jeffrey Mishlove: (The greatest Parapsychologist in the modern times), studied Owens from 1976 until Prophet Owens’s death in 1987. Mishlove later wrote the book The PK Man: A True Story of Mind Over Matter, arguing that Prophet Owens’s case deserved serious investigation because of the volume of documented predictions and unusual coincidences associated with him.

Controversy

Prophet Ted Owens remains a highly controversial figure. Supporters view him as one of the most extensively documented psychics in modern history, while skeptics argue that his apparent successes may be explained by selective reporting, broad predictions, coincidence, and confirmation bias. Some negative critics have also suggested that some of his beliefs may reflect delusional or grandiose thinking rather than genuine paranormal phenomena.

Why He Remains Important in Parapsychology

For many researchers and enthusiasts of parapsychology, Prophet Owens represents a fascinating case because:

His claims were recorded over many years.
He actively sought scientific attention rather than avoiding scrutiny.
Thousands of pages of letters, predictions, and reports survive in archives.
His case sits at the intersection of psychokinesis, UFO contact experiences, prophecy, and anomalous cognition.

Given your interest in Controlled Remote Viewing and “Space Intelligences,” Prophet Owens is often discussed as one of the most unusual figures linking psychic phenomena with purported non-human intelligences. His case remains unresolved: believers see compelling evidence of genuine anomalies, while negative and argumentative skeptics see a cautionary example of how extraordinary Psychical Powers can be interpreted through different extraordinary lenses.

Shervan K Shahhian

Parapsychology: Crisis Apparitions are reports of seeing, hearing, or sensing,…

Crisis Apparitions are reports of seeing, hearing, or sensing a person at about the same time that person is experiencing a life threatening crisis, serious accident, or death, often when the experiencer had no normal way of knowing what was happening.

Examples include:

Seeing a relative appear briefly in a room, only to learn later that the relative died at roughly the same time.
Hearing a loved one’s voice calling one’s name during a medical emergency.
Feeling a vivid presence accompanied by a strong sense that someone is in danger.

Characteristics of Crisis Apparitions

Usually occur unexpectedly.
Often involve a family member, close friend, or loved one.
May be visual, auditory, tactile, or simply a strong sense of presence.
Typically last only a few seconds or minutes.
The apparition usually appears normal rather than ghostlike.

Possible Explanations

Different perspectives have been proposed:

Psychological

Coincidence combined with selective memory.
Grief, stress, expectation, or misinterpretation of ordinary experiences.
Memory reconstruction after learning of the crisis.

Parapsychological

Some researchers suggest a form of telepathic communication occurring during extreme emotional events.
Others interpret them as evidence that consciousness can function independently of the mind, especially in cases occurring around death.

Skeptical View

Controversial skeptics argue that apparent correspondences between experiences and crises may arise by chance, reporting biases, and retrospective matching of events.

Are They Common?

Studies of bereavement and anomalous experiences suggest that sensing the presence of deceased loved ones is relatively common. However, crisis apparitions, where the experience occurs simultaneously with a distant crisis or death, are much rarer and remain controversial.

In parapsychology, crisis apparitions are considered one of the classic categories of spontaneous psi experiences, alongside telepathic impressions, precognitive dreams, and other anomalous experiences. They remain an intriguing topic in both psychical research and consciousness studies.

Shervan K Shahhian

Parapsychology: Bereavement Apparitions are experiences in which a person perceives,…

Bereavement Apparitions are experiences in which a person perceives the presence of a deceased loved one after that person’s death. These experiences are surprisingly common and are often reported during the grieving process.

Common Types of Bereavement Apparitions

People may report:

Seeing: the deceased person briefly.
Hearing: their voice.
Feeling their presence: in the room.
Sensing a touch: such as a hand on the shoulder.
Smelling a familiar scent: associated with the deceased.
Having vivid visitation dreams: that feel unusually real.

How Common Are They?

Research in grief psychology and psychical research suggests that bereaved individuals report some form of post death sensory or presence experience. Many people who have these experiences do not have a mental illness and may find them comforting rather than distressing.

Psychological Perspective

Psychologists often view bereavement apparitions as a normal part of adapting to loss. Possible explanations include:

The mind’s continued expectation that the loved one is present.
Strong emotional bonds and attachment.
Memory and perception processes during grief.
Dreams and altered states occurring during bereavement.

From this perspective, the experience does not necessarily indicate a psychiatric disorder: please, consult with a Psychiatrist.

Parapsychological Perspective

Within the field of Parapsychology, some researchers have considered whether certain bereavement apparitions might represent evidence for the survival of consciousness after death. This remains controversial and has not been accepted as established by stereotypical mainstream science.

When to Seek Help

Bereavement apparitions are generally not considered a problem if they:

Are brief and comforting.
Occur in the context of normal grief.
Do not impair daily functioning.

Professional evaluation may be helpful if the experiences are highly distressing, persistent, involve dangerous commands, or occur alongside other symptoms of psychosis or severe mental illness: please, consult with a Psychiatrist.

Example

A widow may wake during the night and clearly see her deceased husband sitting in a favorite chair for a few seconds before the image fades. She recognizes that her spouse has died, but the experience feels vivid and comforting. This would be a classic example of a bereavement apparition.

Many grief counselors today view such experiences as part of the broad range of normal human responses to loss, regardless of whether they are interpreted psychologically, spiritually, or parapsychologically.

Shervan K Shahhian

Scientific Psychology is the study of behavior, thoughts, emotions, and mental processes,…

Scientific Psychology is the study of behavior, thoughts, emotions, and mental processes using the scientific method. Rather than relying on intuition, personal opinion, or anecdotal evidence, scientific psychology develops and tests theories through systematic observation, experimentation, and data analysis.

Core Principles of Scientific Psychology

1. Empirical Evidence

Scientific psychology is based on observable and measurable evidence. Psychologists collect data through:

Experiments
Surveys
Interviews
Psychological tests
Behavioral observations
Brain imaging techniques: Consult with a Radiologist

Conclusions are drawn from evidence rather than assumptions.

2. The Scientific Method

Psychologists typically follow these steps:

Observe a phenomenon.
Ask a research question.
Form a hypothesis.
Conduct research or experiments.
Analyze the data.
Draw conclusions.
Replicate the findings.

Replication helps determine whether results are reliable.

3. Objectivity

Researchers strive to minimize personal bias by using:

Standardized procedures
Control groups
Random assignment
Blind and double blind methods
Statistical analysis

Objectivity increases the credibility of findings.

4. Testable and Falsifiable Theories

Scientific theories must be capable of being tested and potentially disproven.

For example:

“Sleep deprivation impairs memory performance.”
- ✔ Testable
“Invisible spirits influence memory.”
- ✘ Not conventionally and scientifically testable in its usual form because it does not conventionally produce measurable, falsifiable predictions.

Major Areas of Scientific Psychology

Scientific psychology may encompass many specialties, including:

Cognitive Psychology
Behavioral Psychology
Developmental Psychology
Social Psychology
Biological Psychology
Clinical Psychology
Neuropsychology
Health Psychology
Industrial and Organizational Psychology
Forensic Psychology

Possible, Common Research Methods

Researchers may use different methods depending on the question being studied.

Method	Purpose
Experiments	Determine cause and effect relationships
Correlational studies	Identify relationships between variables
Longitudinal studies	Examine changes over time
Cross sectional studies	Compare different groups at one point in time
Case studies	Gain in depth understanding of individuals or rare phenomena
Meta analysis	Combine results from many studies to estimate overall effects

Statistics in Scientific Psychology

Statistics help psychologists determine whether findings are meaningful.

Common concepts may include:

Mean, median, and mode
Standard deviation
Correlation
Probability
Statistical significance
Effect size
Confidence intervals

Modern psychology increasingly emphasizes effect sizes, confidence intervals, and replication rather than relying only on statistical significance.

Ethics in Psychological Research

Research involving humans may follows ethical guidelines established by organizations such as the American Psychological Association.

Key ethical principles include:

Informed consent
Confidentiality
Protection from unnecessary harm
Right to withdraw
Debriefing after participation
Review by an institutional ethics committee

Evidence Based Practice

Scientific psychology may also guide clinical work through evidence based practice, which may integrate:

The best available scientific research.
The clinician’s expertise.
The client’s values, preferences, and cultural background.

This approach helps ensure that assessment and treatment decisions are informed by research while remaining individualized.

Strengths

Scientific psychology:

Produces reliable, testable knowledge.
Identifies causes and risk factors for behavior.
Improves psychological treatments.
Helps reduce bias through systematic methods.
Contributes to education, healthcare, business, and public policy.

Limitations

Some aspects of human experience maybe difficult to study scientifically, such as:

Subjective emotions
Personal meaning
Spiritual experiences
The Paranormal
Cultural influences
Rare or unique psychological phenomena

Researchers may often address these complexities by combining quantitative methods (experiments, surveys) with qualitative approaches (interviews and thematic analysis).

Scientific Psychology and Parapsychology

It’s worth noting that scientific psychology and parapsychology differ primarily in their standards of evidence rather than in the questions they ask.

Scientific psychology generally investigates phenomena that can be measured, replicated, and independently verified. Parapsychology explores claims such as telepathy, psychokinesis, and survival of consciousness. Some researchers have attempted to study these topics using scientific methods, but the findings remain controversial because they have not consistently met the standards of robust replication and broad acceptance required by controversial mainstream science.

In summary:

Scientific psychology is the systematic, empirical study of behavior and mental processes. Its defining feature is not a particular theory about the mind, but a commitment to using rigorous methods, critical thinking, and reproducible evidence to understand human thought, emotion, and behavior.

Shervan K Shahhian

Machiavellianism maybe a personality trait characterized by strategic manipulation:

Machiavellianism is a personality trait characterized by strategic manipulation, emotional detachment, and a focus on personal gain or power. The term comes from Niccolò Machiavelli, whose writings, especially The Prince, were interpreted as emphasizing pragmatic, sometimes ruthless political strategy.

Key characteristics

Manipulative behavior: influencing others to achieve one’s goals.
Strategic thinking: planning several steps ahead.
Emotional detachment: making decisions with less regard for feelings.
Cynicism: assuming others are motivated by self-interest.
Focus on power, status, or advantage: prioritizing outcomes over relationships.

Common behaviors

A person high in Machiavellianism might:

Use flattery strategically.
Withhold information when it benefits them.
Form alliances for practical reasons rather than emotional closeness.
Exploit weaknesses or conflicts between people.
Appear charming while pursuing a hidden agenda.

Machiavellianism vs. healthy influence

Healthy influence	Machiavellian influence
Transparent communication	Hidden motives
Mutual benefit	Primarily self-benefit
Respect for boundaries	Willingness to bend boundaries
Empathy and trust	Calculated use of trust
Long-term healthy relationships	Long-term control or advantage

The “Dark Triad”

In psychology, Machiavellianism maybe grouped with:

Machiavellianism

Strategic manipulation

Manipulation and strategic exploitation

Narcissism

Grandiosity

Grandiosity and need for admiration

Psychopathy

Low empathy

Low empathy, impulsivity, and callousness

Together they are called the Dark Triad. Someone may be high in one trait and not necessarily high in the others.

Is Machiavellianism a disorder?

No. It maybe considered a personality trait, not a mental disorder. However, very high levels may contribute to interpersonal problems, unethical behavior, workplace conflict, or exploitative relationships.

Signs in relationships

Potential red flags

Repeated pattern

Frequent guilt tripping or emotional leverage
Selective honesty
Playing people against each other
Keeping score of favors
Using affection, attention, or approval as a bargaining tool
Rarely accepting responsibility when caught manipulating

What research says

Studies generally find that people higher in Machiavellianism tend to:

Be effective in short term competitive situations.
Excel at reading social dynamics.
Have lower levels of empathy and trust.
Experience more unstable or conflict-prone relationships.
Be viewed as less trustworthy over time.

A simple example

Healthy negotiation: “Let’s find a solution that works for both of us.”

Machiavellian approach: “If I make them feel guilty and reveal only part of the information, I can get the outcome I want.”

The key difference

Intent matters

The key difference is not simply being strategic. Strategic thinking is normal and often healthy. Machiavellianism involves using strategy, manipulation, and emotional leverage primarily for personal advantage, often with little concern for the other person’s wellbeing.

Shervan K Shahhian